Birth

Sha‘bān, 1254 A.H./ October-November, 1838

Determination of the country of his birth has remained a controversial issue. According to one set of evidences, he was born in Asadābād, Afghanistan, and according to the other, in Asadābād, Iran. Afg̲h̲āni himself has always stated that he was an Afghan and has signed himself either as “Jamāl al-Din al-ḥusaini al-Afg̲h̲āni” or “Jamāl al-Dīn al-ḥusaini.” Some of his close associates and disciples held him as an Afghan.1 On the other hand, several Persian sources support the view that he was born in Asadābād, near Hamadan in Iran.2 According to this opinion Afg̲h̲āni’s family was originally Persian and lived at Asadābād and later Afg̲h̲āni traveled to Afghanistan. Evidence to this view is equally weighty. Afg̲h̲āni, aware of this controversy, is reported to have told one of his disciples, Burhān al-Dīn Qalīj k̲h̲ān, during his last years in Constantinople, that he was an Afghan by birth. He explained that the Iranians deliberately or otherwise mistook him as an Irani since another Shaik̲h̲ Jamāl al-Dīn, who was as Irani and Bābi, visited all those places in Iran where Afg̲h̲āni had travelled.3 Regarding Afg̲h̲āni’s assertions that he was an Afghan, Nikki R. Keddie holds that he deliberately concealed his Iranian origin “to present himself to the Muslim world as a Sunni rather than a Shi‘i, as the Sunnis formed the majority of Muslims outside Iran, while a Muslim ethnic Persian from Iran would be recognized as almost surely a Shi‘i.”4

Childhood and Early Education

Difference of opinion as to the country he lived in during his early years of education persists.5

1856-57 First visit to India:

Visit lasted for one year and some months6 or for four years,7 during which he visited several cities and acquainted himself with modern European sciences. In the same year, 1273/ 1856-57, he visited Mecca for pilgrimage8 and is also reported to have traveled to Iraq, Persia, Baluchistan9 and probably Istanbul.10

1857-1868-69

(i) Accounts of supporters of his Afghanistan origin: He entered the service of Amir Dost Muḥammad k̲h̲ān, the ruler of Afn̲istan,11 and after his death that of Sher ‘Ali. As advisor to Sher ‘Ali, he is reported to have introduced many reforms in administration: systematized the procedures of court, reorganized army, founded military schools, hospitals, schools, got postage-stamps printed and constructed roads and travelers’ lodges.12 Due to the treacherous role played by the Prime Minister, Rafique k̲h̲ān left for India in 1282/ 1865-66.13 Returned after about a year to serve under the new Amir, Muḥammad A‘zam. However, the political conditions got unstable and he left Kabul for good in 1285/ 1868-69.14
(ii) Accounts of supporters of his Iran origin: This account supported by Afg̲h̲āni’s personal papers rules out Afg̲h̲āni’s stay in Afghanistan earlier than 1866.15 According to it, there is no reliable information of Afg̲h̲āni’s activities from 1858 to 1865. Definite earliest presence in Afghanistan is since 1866. He was adviser to A‘zam k̲h̲ān in 1867-68.16 Exiled from Qandhar on December 11, 1868 and left for Bombay.17
1869

In India for a month or from March-April to July, 1869. Proceeded to Cairo where he stayed for about (40) days, during which he met the ‘ulamā and visited Azhar. Lectured on Ibn Sina’s Ishārāt.18 Left for Constantinople.

1869-71 Constantinople:

Afg̲h̲āni received with respect by high government officials like the Prime Minister, ‘āli Pāshā, Fuād Pāshā and Munīf Effendi, President of Anjuman-i Ma‘ārif (Academy of Sciences). Was made a member of the Academy. Took interest in educational reforms. His views and suggestions welcomed by reformer-statesmen like ‘āli Pāshā and Fuād Pāshā, but opposed by the conservatives led by the Shai`k`h al-Islām, ḥasan Fahmi Effendi.19 Invited to speak at the inauguration of the new University, Dār al-Fun~un, by Taḥsīn Effendi, the Director of the University. Delivered a lecture in Ramaz̤ān/November-December, 1870, on Arts.20 Text of the lecture was approved by Turkish officials. His views expressed in the lecture attacked by the orthodox circles, led by ḥasan Fahmi Effendi, as heretical. Campaign against Afg̲h̲āni. Government asked him to leave Constantinople. Left for Egypt.

At Constantinople:

First public appearance as a reformer and liberal intellectual and first public attack by orthodoxy.

1871 – 79: Egypt

Arrived in Cairo in Muḥarram, 1288,21 March 22, 1871.22 Egyptian Prime Minister, Riyāz̤ Pāshā, conferred stipend of about one thousand qursh (ten Egyptian pounds) per month not for any specific services but as token of respect o an illustrious visitor.23 Became immediately popular among the students and the youth. Lectured on various subjects like mysticism, jurisprudence, scholasticism and physical and rational sciences. First indication of his thinking on uniting the Muslims of India, Afghanistan, Bukhara, etc., on the basis of Islam (Ittiḥād-i Islāmiyah) against Russia.24 Stressed on intellectual and political awakening of Egyptian youth. For this purpose, encouraged starting journals like Miṣr and al-Tijārah.25 Himself contributed to these journals. Most probably, wrote his Tatimmah al-Bayān fi Tā‘rik̲h̲ al-Afg̲h̲ān, here. Founded al-ḥizab al-Vatani (the nationalist party) for the social betterment, spiritual purification and political awakening of the Egyptian people.26 Was attracted by Freemasonry and joined a lodge.27 In 1876-79 became Grand Master of the Masonic Lodge of Alexandria.28 However, disassociated himself later finding it not useful for his purposes.29 Afg̲h̲āni and his group worked successfully for the deposition of k̲h̲edive Ismā’il in favour of his son Tavfīq. k̲h̲edive Tavfīq, contrary to his earlier assurances to Afg̲h̲āni, apprehensive of the latter’s persistent demands of political reforms and under pressure of Britain and France, expelled him. Afg̲h̲āni and his disciple Abu Turāb arrested on Ramaz̤ān 5, 1296/August 27, 1979.30 Afg̲h̲āni left Egypt in September, 1879.31

Impact: Created great impression on the youth and intellectuals as a liberal thinker and political leader. Inspired them to study Islam independent of past authorities, to learn modern sciences and philosophy and to struggle for constitutional government. Faced opposition of the orthodox circles who accused him of holding unorthodox and even heretical views.32 Succeeded in creating a group of young intellectuals which paved the way for the future religious reform movement, Salafiyah, and Egyptian nationalist movement. Shaik̲h̲ Muḥammad ‘Abduh, the most prominent among his disciples, later emerged as an outstanding Muslim thinker of modern age.33

1879 – 1882: India

Reached Bombay via Karachi. After a brief stay in Bombay proceeded to Hyderabad, the capital of the Nizam’s State, the largest Muslim princely state of India. Was surrounded by opponents of Sir Syed Aḥmad Khan of ‘Aligarh. Was very active in writing in Persian. Wrote his treatise, “ḥaqiqat-i Maz̲hab-i-Nīcari v Bayān-i ḥāl-i Nīcariyān” (Refutation of Naturalists), against, what he considered to be, the ‘naturalist’ thought of Syed Aḥmad k̲h̲ān and his companions. Wrote almost all of his available Persian articles, covering a wide range of issues like the rise and fall of Islam and Muslims, the negative role of ‘ulamā, importance of learning modern sciences and philosophy, language as a unifying force in a nation, etc. Was instrumental in starting journals, Mu‘allim (edited by Sajjad Mirza) and, Mu‘allim-i Shafiq (edited by Muḥib-i ḥusain), from Hyderabad. Did not participate in any political activities, although his anti-British views can be clearly noticed in his articles camouflaged in metaphors and in his sarcastic references to those loyal to Indian British government. Was kept under watch by the government and then in late 1881 taken to Calcutta.34 In Calcutta also he formed a small circle of admirers. Wrote some articles and delivered a lecture at Albert Hall, Madrasah-i‘āliya:35 His movements watched by the government.36 Left Calcutta in late 1882.

1883 – 85: Paris, London

Arrived in London in January, 1883. Met Wilfred Scawen Blunt. Wrote his first two political articles, “English Policy in Eastern Countries”, and, “The Reasons for the War in Egypt”, published in the Bee/al-Naḥla, London, edited by Louis Sambunji. Contributed, “Letter on India”, to the French journal, La Justice. These articles criticized British policy in Egypt, Afghanistan and India and favoured Sultan ‘Abdul ḥāmid’s policy of uniting the Muslims.37

Went to Paris during the same month of January, 1883. Wrote an article, “al-Sharq v al-Sharqiyīn” (the East and the Easterners) in Abu Na|z|zārah Zarqā‘, edited by James Sanua. Vaḥdat al-Islāmiyah became the central theme of his writings. His Egyptian disciples, including ‘Abduh, re-established contacts with him through letters.

‘Abduh translated Afg̲h̲āni’s treatise on Indian Naturalists into Arabic entitled al-Radd ‘al al-Dahriyin.

Afg̲h̲āni wrote his rejoinder to Ernest Renan’s article on ‘Islam and Science’. Both were published in Journal Des Debats. Was involved in the Mahdi uprising in Sudan against Britain. Wrote articles in l‘ Intransigeant on the Mahdi, welcoming this movement as a means of uniting Muslims on the basis of Islam against foreign colonialists and imperialists, particularly Britain.
‘Abduh joined Afg̲h̲āni in 1883. Afg̲h̲āni met Victor Hugo and Oliver Pain.38

Journal al-‘Urvah al-Vu_sqa, edited by Afg̲h̲āni and ‘Abduh, started in 1884 probably as the organ of a society, Jami‘at al-‘Urvah al-Vu_sqa.39 The title of the Journal was taken from the Qur‘ānic verse, ‘So whosoever disbelieves in the devil believes in Allah, he indeed lays hold on the firmest handle which shall never break’. (2.56). It published articles and comments reflecting as a whole the views of Afg̲h̲āni. Some of the important themes and subjects discussed were: domination of the West over the East, particularly that of England over the Muslim lands and India; Mahdi of Sudan; Russian threat to Afghanistan; Islamic teachings; importance of modern sciences; Islamic theological and ethical concepts of social and political significance; comparative study of Christianity and Islam and the rise of the Christians and decline of the Muslims; Free will and Pre-Destination; Vices ad Virtues; dynamism of Qur‘ānic teachings; criticism of Muslim monarchs; Islamic unity (Vaḥdat al-Islāmiyah), etc.

‘Abduh left at the end of 1884 for Tunis.

Talks with British government through W.S. Blunt on steps to solve the problem of British involvement in Mahdi uprising in Sudan with the mediation of Afg̲h̲āni. Talks failed. Attempt to prepare a scheme of alliance between England, Turkey, Iran and Afghanīstan against Russia.40 Contact between Afg̲h̲āni and Sultan ‘Abdul ḥamid established through emissaries. Afg̲h̲āni supported the Sultan as the symbol of Muslim unity.41

1886 – 87: Iran and Russia42

Iran (1886-87): Left London and reached B~ushahr in May, 1886, where he stayed for six months. Met Malik al-Mutakallimīn, later one of the leading figures in the Iranian constitutional movement, Mirzā Furṣat al-Dawlah Shīrāzi and Mirzā Riz̤ā Kirmāni, who later, in 1896, assassinated Nāṣiruddīn Shāh, the king of Iran. On invitation received through I‘temād al-Saltanah, Minister of Press and Publication, Afg̲h̲āni left for Tehran to see Nāṣiruddīn Shāh Qāchār, via Shīrāz and Iṣfahān. In Iṣfahān, he met ḥāji Sayyāḥ and |Zil al-Sultān, the Shāh’s eldest son and governor of Iṣfahān. In Tehran, Afg̲h̲āni met the Shah. The Shah got suspicious of him because of his fearless manner and his strong views on reforms. He was forced to leave Iran.
Russia, (1883-89): May, 1887, arrived in Moscow. Visit arranged by Katkov, the editor of Moscow Gazette, who probably died the same year. Maharaja Dalip Singh, son of Ranjeet Singh, deposed in 1849 by the British government of India, was also brought by Katkov to Moscow. Afg̲h̲āni and Dalip Singh reportedly worked together for a possible revolt in India against the British.43 Afg̲h̲āni wrote articles and gave interviews to Moscow newspapers containing criticism of British activities in Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan.
August, 1887. Arrived in St. Petersburg. Correspondence with certain Iranian high officials for removing misunderstandings about him. Nāṣiruddīn Shāh arrived in St. Petersburg on his way to Europe in 1889. Afg̲h̲āni failed in his attempt to get a positive response from the Shah. Became more critical of Iranian policies. Afg̲h̲āni left Russia for Europe in the middle of 1889.
Munich, (1889)
Met the Iranian Prime Minister who sent Afg̲h̲āni back to Russia to explain to the Russian officials the circumstances in which certain concessions (that is, establishment of a national bank, rights of navigation in the river Karun, etc.) were given to Britain, an act which was resented by Russia. Afg̲h̲āni held talks with the Russian official and got certain proposals for the Iranian government. Left for Tehran.

Tehran, (Nov., 1889-91)

The Prime Minister did not see him regarding the outcome of the mission. After a while the Russian Govt., due to the delay, withdrew their commitments to Afg̲h̲āni and, on the other hand, the Iranian Prime Minister also expressed his non-involvement in Afg̲h̲āni’s mission to Russia. The Shah and the British disliked his further stay in Iran. Afg̲h̲āni turned against the Shah, held secret meetings with the ‘ulamā and the youth for the removal of despotism and for a constitutional government.
Was ordered to leave Tehran in July, 1890. He took refuge in the shrine of Shah ‘Abdul ‘A|zeem and from there continued his attacks on the Shah. Was arrested and taken to Turkish border in January, 1891.

Early 1891

Expelled to Basra by the Ottoman government. Wrote a letter to the Iranian Mujtahid, ḥāji ḥasan Shīrāzi, against the Tobacco Concession granted by the Shāh to Imperial Tobacco Corporation owned by Britain, which played a vital role in the launching of a mass movement led by the Iranian ‘ulamā against the Concession which was ultimately cancelled.44
1892, London
Arrived in autumn. Wrote articles in Qān~un (edited by Prince Malkam _k̲h̲ān, ex-Minister of Iran in Britain) and other journals against the Shah and Iran government.45 Met E.G. Browne. Invitations from Sultān ‘Abdul ḥamīd to visit Istanbul through intermediaries, from February, 1892.

1892 – 1897: Istanbul

Arrived in the summer of 1892. Received with due respect by the Sultan and the Turkish religious elite. Was surrounded by Turkish and Iranian intellectuals and reformers including ‘Abdul Qādir al-Mag̲h̲ribi, Muḥammad Pāshā Mak̲h̲z~umi (who later published his k̲h̲āt̤irāt based on Afg̲h̲āni’s views, recorded during this period), Mirzā āqā k̲h̲ān Kirmāni, Shaik̲h̲ Aḥmad R~uḥi, Ibrāhīm al-Muwailihi, ‘Abdullah Nadīm of Egypt, etc. His main activity, encouraged and supported by the Sultan, was to implement his scheme of Vaḥdat al-Islāmiyah, by writings letters to the ‘ulamā of Muslims countries, particularly of Iran. Stepped up his campaign against the Shāh of Iran. The Shāh was ultimately killed Mirzā Riz̤ā Kirmāni, a disciple of Afg̲h̲āni, on May 1, 1896.

Afg̲h̲āni’s relations with the Sultan deteriorated due to Afg̲h̲āni’s uncompromising political views and his association with the revolutionaries. This was further aggravated due to the animosity of ‘Abdul Huda, an important religious leader, who accused Afg̲h̲āni of holding heretical views. A chance meeting between Afg̲h̲āni and the visiting new k̲h̲edive of Egypn Istanbul in the summer of 1895, gave rise to the suspicion that Afg̲h̲āni, despairing of the Sultan, was working for the latter’s Caliphate. Fallen from grace, he was kept under watch. Tried to leave Istanbul and seek British protection but failed. Died on March 9, 1897.

References

1 Risālah, p. 2; Ta‘rikh, i, pp. 27ff; Mashāhīr, ii. pp. 52-54; Shakeb Arsalān, ḥāz̤ir al-‘ālam al-Islāmi, I, Cairo, 1343 A.H., pp. 199-200; Zu‘amā, pp. 60ff; ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Rafi ‘i, ‘Aṣr Ismā‘īl, ii, Egypt, 1932, p. 150; Maḥm~ud Qāsim, Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afg̲h̲āni, Egypt, n.d., pp. 9ff.; Sh, p. 100; g̲h̲ulām Jilāni A‘|zami, Majallah-i Kābul, Kabul, July 7, 1931, pp. 21ff.; ā_sār, p. 1ff., Goldziher, Encyclopaedia of Islam, art. Djemal al-Din al-Afg̲h̲ani; General Nādir Khān, ex-king of Afg̲h̲~nistan, on the authority of Shakeb Arsalān and M~usā Jārullāh, asserts that Afg̲h̲āni was an Afghan. He points out Afg̲h̲~ni’s appointment as the minister of Amīr A‘zam as enough proof of his being a Sunni (written statement given to Qāz̤i ‘Abdul g̲h̲affār) ā_sār, pp. 6-7 Ernest Renan, who met Afg̲h̲āni in Paris in 1883, describes him as “an Afg̲h̲ān” who “belongs to those energetic races of upper Iran bordering upon India, in which the Aryan spirit still persists.” William G. Hutchinson, The Poetry of Celtic Races and other Studies, London, 1896, p. x; Jarīdah-yi Muṣavvirah, Mat̤ba‘ _Sabāt, Istanbul, quotes Afg̲h̲āni, “I do not have any need to relate myself to any one nation (millat). I am an Afghan,” ā_sār, p. 19
2 For all such evidences and discussion on the subject, Cf. Biography, Chap. 2 and Appendix I.
3 Millat, Constintinople, Tashrīn Iḥāni, 1326/1926, quoted ā_sār, pp. 18-19
4 Biography, p. 428
5 For opinions supporting his stay in Iran, see Biography, Chap. 2, for opinions supporting his Afg̲h̲anistan stay, see Risālah, pp. 2-3; Mashāhīr, ii, p. 53; E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 4-5
6 Risālah, p. 3
7 Biography, pp. 22ff.
8 Risālah, p. 2
9 A‘zami, op. cit., pp. 31-32
10 Biography, p. 32
11 Risālah, p. 3. He also accompanied the Amir during his compaign against Herat in 1278/1861-62. Ibid.
12 A‘zami, op. cit., pp. 34-36
13 Ibid. for Afg̲h̲āni’s reference to Rafiq k̲h̲ān, see Maḥm~ud ‘Ali k̲h̲ān, Ta‘rik̲h̲-i Afghānistān, Urdu translation of Afg̲h̲āni’s Tatimmah al-Bayān fi Ta‘rīk̲h̲ al-Af_g̲h̲ān , Lahore, circa 1342 A.H., pp. 101, 104
14 Risālah, p. 5
15 Biography, pp. 32ff.
16 Ibid., pp. 37ff.
17 Documents, p. 9
18 Risālah, p. 5
19 Ibid., Biography, p. 4ff. for other sources.
20 Risālah, pp. 5-7; Browne, op. cit., pp. 6-7; Biography, Ibid.
21 Risālah, p. 7
22 Browne, op. cit., p. 7
23 Risālah, pp. 7; Jurji Zaidān, op. cit., ii, p. 56
24 Afg̲h̲āni’s letter to a Turkish dignitary, written most probably during his stay in Egypt. Biography, pp. 129ff; Documents, photos 26-27.
25 Maḥm~ud Qāsim, op. cit., p. 26; Jacob M. Landau, Parliament and Parties in Egypt, Tel-Aviv, 1953, p. 86; Zu‘amā, pp. 68-70.
26 Mahallāti, op. cit., pp. 56ff.; Risālah, pp. 26ff.; Al-Manār, XI, p. 199
27 Statement of ‘Abduh, quoted, SH, p. 491; Zu‘amā, pp. 73-74; Ta‘rīkh, i, pp. 45-47; Maḥm~ud Qāsim, op. cit., p. 40; Muḥammad ‘Abd al-Fallāh, Ashhar Mashāhīr Udabā al-Sharq, I, Egypt, n.d., pp. 45-46
28 Landau, op. cit., p. 82
29 W.S. Blunt, Ibid.
30 Zu‘amā, p. 76
31 Risālah, Ibid.; Zaidān, op. cit., p. 57
32 For such criticism, Cf. Salīm Effendi ‘Anh~uri, Sehr Hār~ut, Damascus, 1303/1885, pp. 176-85. The author, however, withdrew his criticism when ‘Abduh explained Afg̲h̲āni’s religious outlook to him. Risālah, pp. 11-13; Biography, pp. 81ff.
33 For Afg̲h̲āni’s impact on ‘Abduh, see Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Risālah al-Tawḥīd, trans., B. Michel and M. Abdel Razik, Paris, 1925, Introduction; Charles C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt, London, 1933; A. Albert Kudsi-Zadeh, The Legacy of Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afg̲h̲āni in Egypt, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Indian University, Blommington, 1964; Ta‘rīkh; Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Muz̲ākirāt al-Imām Muḥammad ‘Abduh, ed. Tāhir al-Tenali, Cairo, 1963, pp. 34-36; Ibrāhim Hilbāwi, “Ahamm ḥadith Aththara fi Majrā Hayāti,” al-Hilāl, XXXVIII, I, Dec., 29, pp. 138-40; Maḥm~udul ḥaq, Muḥammad ‘Abduh: A Study of a Modern Thinker of Egypt, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1970, Chap. II; for various aspects, Cf. Biography, pp. 81ff.
34 Risālah, p. 8; W.S. Blunt, Gordon at Khartoum, London, 1911, p. 40
35 M, p. 88
36 W. S. Blunt, India under Ripon, London, 1909, pp. 13
37 Biography, p. 184
38 Ibid., pp. 213-14
39 Al-Manār, VIII, p. 455
40 W. S. Blunt, Gordon at Khartoum , London, 1911, pp. 467-68
41 Biography, Chap. 9
42 For information on his visit to Iran and Russia, Cf. Sharḥ, pp. 39-44; Mahdi Malikzādeh, Ta‘rīk̲h̲-i Inqilāb-i Mashr~ut̤iyat-i Irān, Vol. 1, Tehran, n.d., p. 191; TBI, pp. 61-62; E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 42-43; Biography, Chap. 10
43 Biography, pp. 283ff.
44 For full text of the letter, Cf. TBI, pp. 68-71; Tā‘rīk̲h̲, i, pp. 56-62; A summary with translation of important portions in E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 15-21; Biography, pp. 342-47
45 Article, “The Reign of Terror in Persia,” Contemporary Review, Feb., 1892; his interview in Pall Mall Gazette, Dec. 19, 1891; appeals Iranian ‘ulamā to depose the Shah, z̤iyā al-k̲h̲afiqain, London, Vol. 1, 1892; his letter known as ḥamlat al-Qur‘ān, addressed to Iranian ‘ulamā, op. cit., March, 1, 1892. For full text of the same, Cf. TBI, pp. 72-74; Tā‘rīkh, i, pp. 63-68; a summary appears, E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 24-26.